Family inheritance

ABSTRACT

Displaying a comparison of genetic data is disclosed, including receiving an indication of a first individual, receiving an indication of a second individual, retrieving the genotypic information for the first individual and the second individual, comparing the genotypic information of the first individual and the second individual, displaying an indication of the comparison of the genotypic information of the first individual and the second individual graphically. A first graphical symbol is used to display an indication of the genome regions for which the first individual and the second individual are identical. A second graphical symbol is used to display an indication of the genome regions for which the first individual and the second individual are half identical.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

An Application Data Sheet is filed concurrently with this specificationas part of the present application. Each application that the presentapplication claims benefit of or priority to as identified in theconcurrently filed Application Data Sheet is incorporated by referenceherein in its entirety and for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The instructions for making the cells in the human body are encoded indeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is a long, ladder-shaped molecule, inwhich each corresponding rung is made up of a pair of interlockingunits, called bases, that are designated by the four letters in the DNAalphabet—A, T, G and C. ‘A’ always pairs with ‘T’, and ‘G’ always pairswith ‘C’. The sequence of these four letters that make up anindividual's DNA is referred to as the individual's genome.

The long molecules of DNA in cells are organized into pieces calledchromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Other organisms havedifferent numbers of pairs—for example, chimpanzees have 24 pairs.Chromosomes are further organized into short segments of DNA calledgenes. The different letters A, T, G, and C, which make up a gene,dictate how cells function and what traits to express by dictating whatproteins the cells will make. Proteins do much of the work in the body'scells. Some proteins give cells their shape and structure. Others helpcells carry out biological processes like digesting food or carryingoxygen in the blood. Using different combinations of the As, Cs, Ts andGs, DNA creates the different proteins and regulates when and how theyare turned on. Information about an individual's DNA sequence, includinghis or her genome or particular regions of the genome is referred to asgenotypic information. Regions of a particular individual's genome canalso be referred to as “DNA sequences.”

Each person has the same set of genes—about 20,000 in all. Thedifferences between people come from slight variations in these genes.For example, it's not that a person with red hair has the “red hairgene” while a person with brown hair has the “brown hair gene.” Rather,all people have genes for hair color, and different versions of thesegenes, i.e. differences in the regions of the genome containing thegene, dictate whether someone will be a redhead or a brunette.

Variations in DNA sequences can generate biological variations betweenpeople by causing differences in the recipes for proteins that arewritten in genes. Those differences can in turn influence a variety oftraits such as appearance, disease susceptibility or response to drugs.While some differences in the DNA sequences among individuals lead todifferences in health or physical appearance, some variations in the DNAsequences among individuals seem to lead to no observable differencesbetween people at all.

Every region of a person's autosomal (restricted to “non-sex”chromosomes) genome is represented by a pair of DNA sequences, oneinherited from the mother and one from the father. Also, each childinherits virtually 50% of his or her DNA from the father and virtually50% from the mother. The DNA inherited from the mother can be eitherinherited from the maternal grandmother or the maternal grandfather. TheDNA inherited from the father can be inherited from the paternalgrandfather or the paternal grandmother. Because each parent has two DNAsequences for every genomic region only one of which he or she will passto each child, two siblings may inherit the same sequence from thefather or the same sequence from the mother, the same sequence fromboth, or different sequences from each parent. As relationships becomemore distant, there is a lower likelihood that two individuals will havethe same sequence. Because it is useful to know the similarity betweentwo individuals' DNA, it would be useful to have a method for comparingthe genotypic information of at least two individuals and displaying thecomparison in a way that can be easy to understand.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed incolor. Copies of this patent or patent application publication withcolor drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and paymentof the necessary fee.

Various embodiments of the invention are disclosed in the followingdetailed description and the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a system fordisplaying similarities in the genotypic data between at least twoindividuals.

FIG. 2a is a flow chart illustrating an embodiment of a method fordisplaying similarities in the genotypic data between at least twoindividuals.

FIG. 2b is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a method forreceiving an indication of a type of genotypic information anddisplaying an indication of the similarities between the at least twoindividuals for the type of genotypic information received.

FIG. 3a is a screen shot of an example of an interface for displaying anindication of the comparison of at least two individual's genome data.

FIG. 3b is a screen shot illustrating another example of an interfacedisplaying an indication of the similarity between two individual'sgenotypic information.

FIG. 3c is a screenshot illustrating another example of an interfacedisplaying an indication of the similarity between two individuals'genotypic information.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart further illustrating, comparing the genotypicinformation of at least two individuals.

FIG. 5 is an example of a display illustrating an indication of thesimilarity between two individual's genotypic information using separatesymbols to indicate each DNA sequence making up a chromosome pair whengenotypic information is received in phased form.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention can be implemented in numerous ways, including as aprocess; an apparatus; a system; a composition of matter; a computerprogram product embodied on a computer readable storage medium; and/or aprocessor, such as a processor configured to execute instructions storedon and/or provided by a memory coupled to the processor. In thisspecification, these implementations, or any other form that theinvention may take, may be referred to as techniques. In general, theorder of the steps of disclosed processes may be altered within thescope of the invention. Unless stated otherwise, a component such as aprocessor or a memory described as being configured to perform a taskmay be implemented as a general component that is temporarily configuredto perform the task at a given time or a specific component that ismanufactured to perform the task. As used herein, the term ‘processor’refers to one or more devices, circuits, and/or processing coresconfigured to process data, such as computer program instructions.

A detailed description of one or more embodiments of the invention isprovided below along with accompanying figures that illustrate theprinciples of the invention. The invention is described in connectionwith such embodiments, but the invention is not limited to anyembodiment. The scope of the invention is limited only by the claims andthe invention encompasses numerous alternatives, modifications andequivalents. Numerous specific details are set forth in the followingdescription in order to provide a thorough understanding of theinvention. These details are provided for the purpose of example and theinvention may be practiced according to the claims without some or allof these specific details. For the purpose of clarity, technicalmaterial that is known in the technical fields related to the inventionhas not been described in detail so that the invention is notunnecessarily obscured.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of a system fordisplaying similarities in the genotypic data between at least twoindividuals.

In the example shown, system 100 receives an indication of at least twoindividuals, and then retrieves the genotype information for thoseindividuals. The system 100 may also receive an indication of therelationship between the two individuals, but need not do so. The system100 may retrieve the genotypic information for the individuals from avariety of sources. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, the system 100 maybe connected, for example by a network 107, to a genome database 102,and retrieve the individual's genotypic genotypic information from thedatabase 102, which includes the genotypic information for the firstindividual 104 and the genotypic information for the second individual106. Alternatively, the genotypic information may be stored in thesystem 100 or may be received from another source.

The system 100 includes a comparison engine 108 that receives thegenotypic information for the at least two individuals 104 and 106 andcompares the genotypic information of the at least two individuals. Thesystem may also receive an indication that the comparison should bedetermined across all of the genome data of the individuals or for thegenome data for a particular trait. The system 100 is connected, forexample through a network 109 to a computer 111 which is connected to adisplay 110, for displaying a representation of the similarity betweenor among the at least two individuals. The display 110 can include anydevice that will allow for displaying the comparison of the at least twoindividuals' genotypic information.

FIG. 2a is a flow chart illustrating an embodiment of a method 200 fordisplaying similarities in the genotypic data between at least twoindividuals. At 202, an indication of a first individual is received.FIG. 3a is a screen shot of an example of an interface for displaying anindication of the comparison of at least two individual's genome data.In the example shown in FIG. 3a , the interface allows for receiving anindication of a first individual by a user indicating an individual at301. There are many ways a user may indicate an individual. For example,this indication could be done from a drop down menu, by the userdragging and dropping a name from a list on the screen, or by the userentering the information by typing. This indication could be done byother ways as well. In the example shown in FIG. 3a , “Greg Mendel” isindicated as a first individual. The indication may include the person'sposition in the family, but need not do so.

Returning to FIG. 2a , at 204, an indication of a second individual isreceived. In the example shown in FIG. 3a , the interface allows forreceiving an indication of a second individual by a user indicating anindividual at 302. Again, there are many ways a user may indicate anindividual. For example, this indication could be done from a drop downmenu, by the user dragging and dropping a name from a list on thescreen, or by the user entering the information by typing. Thisindication could be done by other ways as well. In the example shown inFIG. 3a , “Ian Mendel” is indicated as a first individual. Again, theindication may include the person's position in the family, but need notdo so.

At 208, the genotypic information for the first and second individual isretrieved. An example of retrieving the genotypic information is furtherillustrated in FIG. 1, in which the genotypic information for the firstindividual 104 and the second individual 106 is retrieved from a genomedatabase coupled to the system 100. As discussed above, this is only anexample of retrieving genotypic information for individuals. Genotypicinformation for an individual can be retrieved from other types ofsources.

At 209, the genotypic information of the first individual 104 and secondindividual 106 is compared. In comparing genotypic information for twoindividuals, one can expect that more than 99% of the underlying DNAsequence will be the same. However, the less than 1% of the DNA that maydiffer represents a large number of base pairs. There may be many basepairs that differ in the DNA of two unrelated people from differentethnic groups. On the other hand, when DNA is passed from parent tochild it is copied almost exactly. All locations on an individual'sgenome are represented by two DNA sequences one inherited from thefather and one inherited from the mother. Two individuals arehalf-identical for a DNA region if one of their two sequences is thesame at that region. Two individuals are identical for a DNA region ifboth of their two sequences are the same at that region. Becausechildren inherit virtually 50% of their genomes from each parent, theyare half-identical across the genome to each parent. Because a parent'schromosome pairs recombine before being passed on to children, a childreceives a mixture of his or her grandparents' genomes. For example,because the DNA a mother passes to her daughter is a mixture of DNA fromthe maternal grandmother and the maternal grandfather, only patches of agrandchild's genome will be half-identical to each grandparent's genome.Also, because a parent's DNA recombines before being passed to a child,the child's siblings may or may not inherit the same patches of themother's or father's genome. Because each parent has two DNA sequencesat every region of their genomes, only one of which he or she will passto each child, two siblings may inherit the same sequence from thefather for a particular region or the same sequence from the mother fora particular region, the same sequence from both the mother and father,or different sequences from each parent. When two siblings inherit thesame sequence of DNA from one parent for a region of the genome, theyare half-identical for that region. If they also inherit the samesequence of DNA from the other parent for that region of the genome,they are identical at that region. Identical twin siblings are identicalacross their entire genome. As relationships become more distant, thereis a lower likelihood that two individuals will have the same DNAsequence for a particular region.

Because of recombination of DNA sequences and the independent assortmentof chromosomes, the DNA of two parents is shuffled at every generation.That, in addition to the small trickle of new mutations, means that onlyrelatives will carry long genome regions where their DNA is completelyor almost completely identical. In order to determine whether a regionis identical, one could assay every single base pair directly or assay alarge number of markers that vary between individuals. Markers arepoints along the genome where individuals may differ. These markerscould be, but are not limited to, SNPs (Single NucleotidePolymorphisms), which are points along the genome with two or morecommon variations. A long stretch of sequence where every marker is thesame between two people indicates that the rest of the sequence, whichis not being assayed directly, is also identical. If two markers are thesame, they are called “Identical By State”. If, in addition to being thesame, they lie within a region of identical sequence, which is sharedbecause of recent common ancestry, they are “Identical By Descent” orIBD.

Available genotypic information may come in “phased” or “unphased”forms. As explained above, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Everyregion of a person's autosomal (restricted to “non-sex” chromosomes)genome is represented by a pair of DNA sequences, one inherited from themother and one from the father. If the genotypic data is “unphased” thenit does not specify which of the marker values came from which of thetwo DNA sequences. With “phased” genotypic data, each of the markersvalues is specifically associated with one of the two DNA sequences forthe chromosomes. The data can also come in a partially phased form wheresome of the markers have phased information while others do not. At 209,the comparison can be done using any combination of phased,partially-phased or unphased data. An example of a way to find DNAregions that are IBD between two people using unphased SNP genotype datais to scan the genome in windows of 10 Centimorgans (“CM”). For everywindow the method can compare all the SNP values or genotypes betweenthe two people. If every SNP has the same exact values, then the twopeople are completely identical along the 10 CM window. If they are notall the same, but every SNP has at least one value (allele) in commonbetween two people, then the two people are half-identical along thewindow. This method can also allow for a small percentage of errors sothat not every SNP has to have the same values or some values in common,to make the determination of identity or half-identity, respectively.Other embodiments may include other methods for determining IBD regions.

FIG. 4 is a flowchart further illustrating step 209, comparing thegenotypic information of at least two individuals. When the twoindividuals' DNA is compared, it is determined at 402 for which DNAregions the two individuals have the same DNA sequences. It is alsodetermined at 404, for which regions the individuals are half-identical,i.e. for which regions the two individuals have one sequence in common.It is further determined at 406 for which regions the two individualsare not at all identical, i.e. the regions in which the individuals havenone of the same sequences.

Returning to FIG. 2a , at step 210, an indication of the similaritybetween the first and second individual's genotypic information isdisplayed graphically. FIG. 3a is an example illustrating displaying anindication of the similarity between two individuals' genotypicinformation. In the example in FIG. 3a , an indication was received at301 that a first individual was “Greg Mendel” and an indication wasreceived at 302 that a second individual was “Ian Mendel.” In theexample in FIG. 3a , there is an indication at 301 that “Greg Mendel” isthe father and an indication at 302 that “Ian Mendel” is the son.However, an indication of the relationship between two individuals neednot be received.

FIG. 3a is a screen shot illustrating an example of an interfacedisplaying an indication of the similarity between two individuals'genotypic information. As illustrated in the example in FIG. 3a at 305,an indication of each of the 22 pairs of autosomal human chromosomes andthe X and Y chromosomes is displayed. As shown at 305 and 304, differentcolored graphical symbols are used to indicate the similarity betweenthe genotypic information of at least two individuals. As used herein, agraphical symbol can include a graphical object displayed on a screen ofany appropriate size, shape, and color. In the example shown in FIG. 3aat 304, a blue symbol (in this case, a rectangle, or a semicircle if itis on the edge of the chromosome, as shown in FIG. 3a ) is used todisplay an indication of which locations on the chromosome pairs twoindividuals are half-identical. In other words, the locations at whichone of the two DNA sequences making up the individuals' genomes is thesame for the individuals are indicated. A black symbol is used todisplay an indication of which locations on the chromosome pairs twoindividual are identical. In other words, the locations at which both ofthe two DNA sequences making up the two individuals' genomes is the sameare indicated. A white symbol is used to indicate which locations arenot identical and a grey symbol is used to indicate for which locationsthere are not enough genotypic data to make a determination. However, inalternate embodiments other symbols or colors could be used to displayindications of these same type of similarities in genotypic information.

In the example in FIG. 3a , an indication is displayed that Greg Mendelis half identical to Ian Mendel at all autosomal chromosome pairs,except for those locations in which there is not enough genotypic data.In particular, the indication for all of the chromosome pairs, exceptthose with not enough data are colored blue. Because Greg Mendel is IanMendel's father, we know that Ian Mendel inherited virtually 50% of hisDNA from Greg Mendel, and thus would be half-identical at virtually alllocations on the chromosome pairs.

FIG. 3b is a screen shot illustrating another example of an interfacedisplaying an indication of the similarity between two individual'sgenotypic information. In the example in FIG. 3b , an indication wasreceived at 301 b that a first individual was “Erin Mendel” and anindication was received at 302 b that a second individual was “IanMendel.” In the example in FIG. 3b , there is an indication at 301 bthat “Erin Mendel” is the daughter and an indication at 302 b that “IanMendel” is the son. Thus, Erin Mendel and Ian Mendel are siblings.Again, however, an indication of the relationship between twoindividuals need not be received.

As in the example in FIG. 3a , at 305 b, an indication of each of the 22autosomal human chromosome pairs and the X and Y chromosomes isdisplayed. As shown at 305 b and 304, the same symbol/color scheme isused to display the similarities in genotypic information as was used inFIG. 3a . As shown in FIG. 3b at 305 b, an indication is displayed bythe use of the color black, that Erin Mendel and Ian Mendel areidentical at certain patches of their 22 autosomal human chromosomepairs and the X and Y chromosomes. Also, an indication is displayed bythe use of the color blue, that Erin Mendel and Ian Mendel arehalf-identical at certain patches of their 22 autosomal human chromosomepairs and the X and Y chromosomes. Further, an indication is displayedby the use of the color white, that Erin Mendel and Ian Mendel are notidentical at certain patches of their 22 autosomal human chromosomepairs and the X and Y chromosomes. There is also an indication displayedby the use of the color grey that there is not enough data at certainlocations.

FIG. 2b is a flowchart illustrating an embodiment of a method 212 forreceiving an indication of a type of genotypic information anddisplaying an indication of the similarities between the at least twoindividuals for the type of genotypic information received. The steps inmethod 212 may be used in conjunction with the steps in method 200illustrated in FIG. 2a . At step 214, an indication is received for atype of genotypic information for which an indication of the similarityshould be displayed. This indication may include a comparison across allof the genome data, or a comparison of the genome data regarding aparticular trait. Examples of particular traits may include: bittertasting, circadian rhythm, endurance, female fertility, immune systemcompatibility, non-bitter tasting, pigmentation, weight body mass index,or other types of traits indicated by the user. In the example shown inFIG. 3a , the indication received is for a comparison across all of thegenome data. As the example in FIG. 3a at 303 illustrates, a userinterface may allow for receiving an indication of the type of genomedata for the comparison by displaying on the screen a list of differentgenotypic data to compare and receiving an indication that a user hasselected (e.g., by clicking) one of the items on the list. FIG. 3a ,however is only one example of allowing for receiving such anindication. Other embodiments could include other ways for receiving anindication of the type of genome data for the comparison.

FIG. 3c is a screenshot illustrating another example of an interfacedisplaying an indication of the similarity between two individuals'genotypic information. In the example shown in FIG. 3b , an indicationwas received at step 214 in FIG. 2b that an indication should bedisplayed for a comparison of the bitter tasting gene. As the example inFIG. 3c at 303 c illustrates, a user interface may allow for receivingan indication of the type of genome data for the comparison bydisplaying on the screen a list of different genotypic data to compareand receiving an indication that a user has selected (e.g., by clicking)one of the items on the list. In the example illustrated in FIG. 3c ,the user selected “bitter tasting.” FIG. 3c , however only illustratesone example of allowing for receiving such an indication. Otherembodiments could include other ways for receiving an indication of thetype of genome data for the comparison.

In other embodiments, an indication may be received at step 214 that thegenotypic information for which the comparison should be displayed is auser-specified type of genotypic information. For example, the user maytype in a particular trait or location on the genome.

In the example in FIG. 3c , an indication was received at 301 c that afirst individual was “Erin Mendel” and an indication was received at 302c that a second individual was “Ian Mendel.” In the example in FIG. 3c ,there is an indication at 301 c that “Erin Mendel” is the daughter andan indication at 302 c that “Ian Mendel” is the son. Thus, Erin Mendeland Ian Mendel would be siblings. Again, however, an indication of therelationship between two individuals need not be received.

FIG. 3c illustrates an example of step 216 in FIG. 2a , i.e. anindication is displayed of the similarity of genotypic informationbetween the at least two individuals for the indication of the type ofgenotypic information received in step 214. As in FIG. 3a , in theexample illustrated in FIG. 3c at 305 c, an indication of each of the 22autosomal human chromosome pairs and the X and Y chromosomes isdisplayed. Again, as shown at 305 c and 304, different colors are usedto indicate the similarity between the genotypic information of at leasttwo individuals. In the example shown in FIG. 3c at 304, blue is used todisplay an indication of which locations on the 22 autosomal humanchromosome pairs and the X and Y chromosomes two individuals arehalf-identical. Black is used to display an indication of whichlocations on the 22 autosomal human chromosome pairs and the X and Ychromosomes two individuals are identical. White is used to indicatewhich regions have no DNA sequence in common and grey is used toindicate for which values there is not enough data to make adetermination. Further, a red triangle is used to display an indicationof the locations on the 22 autosomal human chromosome pairs and the Xand Y chromosomes in which the genes associated with the particulartrait appear. Because FIG. 3c displays an indication of all the locationon the 22 autosomal human chromosome pairs and the X and Y chromosomesin which at least two individuals are identical, half-identical and notidentical and also displays which locations are relevant to a particulartrait, the example illustrates an indication of the similarities betweenthe at least two individuals for that particular trait. An alternativeembodiment could display only those particular genes relevant to aparticular trait, as opposed to displaying all 22 autosomal humanchromosome pairs and the X and Y chromosomes and other genes notassociated with any particular trait as in FIG. 3 c.

In a further example of a screen shot which displays an indication ofthe similarity between two individual's genotypic information, anindication may be received at step 214 that an indication should bedisplayed for a comparison across all of the genome data as discussedabove. For example, an indication may be received that a firstindividual is “Greg Mendel” and an indication may be received that asecond individual is a Chinese man.

In this example, as in FIGS. 3a-3b , at 304, blue is used to display anindication of which locations on the chromosome pairs two individualsare half-identical. Black is used to display an indication of whichlocations on the chromosome pairs two individuals are identical. Whiteis used to indicate which regions have no DNA sequence in common andgrey is used to indicate for which values there is not enough data tomake a determination. Using these colors, an indication is displayedthat Greg Mendel and the Chinese man are not identical at any locationsin which there is enough data to make a determination.

Other embodiments could include other ways to display an indication ofthe similarities graphically.

In some embodiments the similarity may be shown for chromosome pairsseparately so that one indicator, such as a graphical shape or a color,would be used to show identity across the paternal chromosome andanother to show identity across the maternal chromosome.

In some embodiments the similarity may be shown using separate symbolsto indicate each of the two DNA sequences making up a chromosome pair.FIG. 5 is an example of a display illustrating an indication of thesimilarity between two individual's genotypic information using separatesymbols to indicate each DNA sequence making up a chromosome pair whengenotypic information is received in phased form. In the example in FIG.5, two separate bars, 502 and 504 are used to indicate each of the twoDNA sequences for the first chromosome pair. Also, two separate bars,506 and 508 are used to indicate the two DNA sequences making up thesecond chromosome pair. As illustrated on bar 502, at 510, a blacksymbol is used to indicate regions on one of the two DNA sequences forthe first chromosome pair, which are the same for the individuals. At512, a white symbol is used to indicate regions on one DNA sequences forthe first chromosome pair in which the individuals are not similar. At513, a grey symbol is used to indicate regions on the DNA sequence forwhich there is not enough genotypic information to make a comparison.

It is to be understood that FIG. 3a-d are only one example of displayingan indication of the similarity between two individuals. Alternativeembodiments could include other ways to display an indication that thegenotypic information of at least two individuals are half-identical atcertain areas, are identical at certain other areas, and not identicalat other areas. One example of an alternate embodiment would be to useas graphical symbols, rectangles of a first width or height to displayan indication of areas that are half-identical, rectangles of a secondwidth or height to indicate areas that are identical, and rectangles ofa third width or height to display an indication that the areas are notidentical. Other methods of displaying an indication of the similarityusing symbols/colors could be used. For example, a display may includecircles to represent areas that are half identical and squares torepresent areas that are identical. In some embodiments, in place ofshapes or colors, shading or other types of fill (e.g., hatching orcross-hatching) may be used.

Although the foregoing embodiments have been described in some detailfor purposes of clarity of understanding, the invention is not limitedto the details provided. There are many alternative ways of implementingthe invention. The disclosed embodiments are illustrative and notrestrictive.

What is claimed is:
 1. A computer-implemented method for determining andgraphically displaying an indication of similarity of genotypicinformation between a first individual and a second individual using auser interface, the method comprising: (a) providing a system comprisinga computer and a genome database comprising genotypic informationpertaining to human autosomal chromosomes, the genome databasecomprising genotypic information of the first individual and genotypicinformation of the second individual; (b) displaying features of theuser interface on a user device, the user interface comprising agraphical display structure comprising: (i) an indication of the firstindividual for whom the genome database contains genotypic informationand for whom genotypic information is to be retrieved from the genomedatabase; (ii) an input component associated with the second individual,configured for receiving, from a user, a user indication of the secondindividual for whom the genome database contains genotypic informationand specifying that genotypic information of the second individual is tobe retrieved from the genome database, and (iii) a graphicalrepresentation of one or more human autosomal chromosomes, configured tobe updated to graphically display an indication of the similaritybetween one or more genome regions of at least one human autosomalchromosome of the genotypic information of the first individual and thegenotypic information of the second individual; (c) receiving, from theuser via input into the input component of b(ii), the user indication ofthe second individual for whom the genome database contains genotypicinformation; (d) retrieving from the genome database, upon receiving theuser indication of (c), genotypic information for the second individual;(e) using the genotypic information for the second individual retrievedin (d) and genotypic information for the first individual, determining,for the at least one human autosomal chromosome, one or more genomeregions in which the genotypic information of the first individual andthe genotypic information of the second individual are half-identical ornot identical; and (f) automatically updating, by a processor of thecomputer, the graphical display structure of the user interface, whereinautomatically updating the graphical display structure comprisesupdating the graphical representation of the one or more human autosomalchromosomes of b(iii) to display at least one graphical symbol of aplurality of graphical symbols to graphically display the similaritybetween one or more genome regions of the at least one human autosomalchromosome for which the genotypic information of the first individualand the genotypic information of the second individual arehalf-identical or not identical, wherein: a first graphical symbol ofthe plurality of graphical symbols is used to display an indication ofone or more genome regions for which the genotypic information of thefirst individual and the genotypic information of the second individualare half-identical, and a second graphical symbol of the plurality ofgraphical symbols is used to display an indication of one or more genomeregions for which the genotypic information of the first individual andthe genotypic information of the second individual are not identical. 2.The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the first graphicalsymbol comprises a color, shading, or fill pattern and the secondgraphical symbol comprises a color, shading, or fill pattern.
 3. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 2, wherein the first graphicalsymbol comprises a first color and the second graphical symbol comprisesa second color.
 4. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, furthercomprising using the genotypic information of the first individual andthe second individual, determining, for the at least one human autosomalchromosome, one or more genome regions in which the genotypicinformation of the first individual and the genotypic information of thesecond individual are identical.
 5. The computer-implemented method ofclaim 4, further comprising automatically updating, by a processor ofthe computer, the graphical representation of the one or more humanautosomal chromosomes of b(iii) to display a third graphical symbol of aplurality of graphical symbols to graphically display the similaritybetween one or more genome regions of the at least one human autosomalchromosome for which the genotypic information of the first individualand the genotypic information of the second individual are identical. 6.The computer-implemented method of claim 5, wherein the third graphicalsymbol comprises a color, shading, or fill pattern.
 7. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, further comprising automaticallyupdating, by a processor of the computer, the graphical representationto display a fourth graphical symbol of the plurality of graphicalsymbols to graphically display one or more genome regions for which thegenotypic information of the first individual and/or the genotypicinformation of the second individual is insufficient to make adetermination of similarity.
 8. The computer-implemented method of claim7, wherein the fourth graphical symbol comprises a color, shading, orfill pattern.
 9. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein thegraphical representation graphically represents twenty-two humanautosomal chromosome pairs and is configured to be updated tographically display an indication of similarity between one or moregenome regions of the genotypic information of the first individual andthe genotypic information of the second individual for each oftwenty-two human autosomal chromosomes.
 10. The computer-implementedmethod of claim 1, wherein the graphical representation graphicallyrepresents twenty-two human autosomal chromosome pairs and at least onehuman sex chromosome and is configured to be updated to graphicallydisplay an indication of similarity between one or more genome regionsof the genotypic information of the first individual and the genotypicinformation of the second individual for each of twenty-two humanautosomal chromosomes and at least one human sex chromosome.
 11. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein, determining, for the atleast one human autosomal chromosome, one or more genome regions inwhich the genotypic information of the first individual and genotypicinformation of the second individual are half-identical or not identicalcomprises determining at least one identical by descent (IBD) regionbetween the first individual and the second individual.
 12. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 11, wherein determining the atleast one IBD region comprises determining a region including at leastone single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker for which the firstindividual and the second individual share at least one allele per SNPmarker.
 13. The computer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the userinterface is configured to be updated to display an estimated amount ofsimilarity between the genotypic information of the first individual andthe genotypic information of the second individual.
 14. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, the input component associatedwith the second individual comprises a drop down menu.
 15. Thecomputer-implemented method of claim 1, wherein the graphical displaystructure comprises a list of names.
 16. The computer-implemented methodof claim 15, wherein the user indication of b(ii) is a dragged anddropped name from the list of names.
 17. The computer-implemented methodof claim 1, wherein the graphical representation of one or more humanautosomal chromosomes comprises two bars for each of one or more humanautosomal chromosome pairs.
 18. The computer-implemented method of claim1, wherein the graphical representation of one or more human autosomalchromosomes represents each human autosomal chromosome pair with asingle bar.
 19. A system for determining and graphically displaying anindication of similarity of genotypic information between a firstindividual and a second individual using a user interface, the systemcomprising: a genome database comprising genotypic informationpertaining to human autosomal chromosomes, the genome databasecomprising genotypic information of the first individual and genotypicinformation of the second individual, a computer comprising one or moreprocessors and memory, the one or more processors being configured to:(a) cause to be displayed on a user device, a user interface comprisinga graphical display structure, the graphical display structurecomprising: (i) an indication of the first individual for whom thegenome database contains genotypic information and for whom genotypicinformation is to be retrieved from the genome database; (ii) an inputcomponent associated with the second individual, configured forreceiving, from a user, a user indication of the second individual forwhom the genome database contains genotypic information and specifyingthat genotypic information of the second individual is to be retrievedfrom the genome database, and (iii) a graphical representation of one ormore human autosomal chromosomes, configured to be updated tographically display an indication of the similarity between one or moregenome regions of at least one human autosomal chromosome of thegenotypic information of the first individual and the genotypicinformation of the second individual; (b) receive, from the user viainput into the input component of a(ii), the user indication of thesecond individual for whom the genome database contains genotypicinformation; (c) retrieve from the genome database, upon receiving theuser indication of (b), genotypic information for the second individual;(d) determine, using the genotypic information for the second individualretrieved in (c) and genotypic information for the first individual forthe at least one human autosomal chromosome, one or more genome regionsin which the genotypic information of the first individual and thegenotypic information of the second individual are half-identical or notidentical; and (e) automatically update the graphical display structureof the user interface, wherein automatically updating the graphicaldisplay structure comprises updating the graphical representation of theone or more human autosomal chromosomes of a(iii) to display at leastone graphical symbol of a plurality of graphical symbols to graphicallydisplay the similarity between one or more genome regions of the atleast one human autosomal chromosome for which the genotypic informationof the first individual and the genotypic information of the secondindividual are half-identical or not identical, wherein: a firstgraphical symbol of the plurality of graphical symbols is used todisplay an indication of one or more genome regions for which thegenotypic information of the first individual and the genotypicinformation of the second individual are half-identical, and a secondgraphical symbol of the plurality of graphical symbols is used todisplay an indication of one or more genome regions for which thegenotypic information of the first individual and the genotypicinformation of the second individual are not identical.